5 Studies on Dehydration
Research confirms that dehydration significantly impairs physical performance, cognitive function, and overall health across all age groups and seasons.
| Study Title | Authors | Year | Key Finding | Plain-English Summary | Link |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Dehydration in Adults (Ages 25–40) & Seasonal Variation | |||||
| Seasonal Variation in Vascular Dehydration Risk (KOBE Study) | Higashiyama et al. | 2024 | Dehydration risk peaks in colder months, not just summer — year-round fluid depletion documented. | People are actually more dehydrated in winter than summer, driven by reduced thirst sensation in cold weather. Dehydration risk was significant year-round, not just in heat. | View Study |
| Public Knowledge of Dehydration and Fluid Intake Practices | Shaheen et al. | 2018 | Average participant age 32 years; major gaps in dehydration awareness and fluid intake behavior. | Surveyed adults (avg. age 32) and found most underestimated how much fluid they needed daily. Despite being physically active, many consistently drank less than recommended amounts. | View Study |
| Water Intake & Hydration Biomarkers in Physically Active Young Adults | Ma et al. | 2022 | Insufficient water intake and hypohydration were common among physically active young adult males. | Over half of active young men were chronically under-hydrated, even on days they exercised. Hydration status was not significantly better on training days. | View Study |
| NHANES Hydration Criteria Across Life Stages (Ages 12–80) | Stookey | 2019 | Adults aged 19–50 commonly fail to meet hydration thresholds based on US population data. | Analyzed data from tens of thousands of Americans and found adults aged 19–50 had some of the highest rates of inadequate hydration, as measured by urine specific gravity. | View Study |
| Hydration Status in Men Across Seasons | Orysiak et al. | 2022 | Body mass and serum osmolality measured across summer, autumn, and winter — all showed dehydration. | All three seasons showed meaningful dehydration, with winter being no better than summer — reinforcing that hydration is a 365-day need. | View Study |
| Sodium-Based Hydration Formulas | |||||
| Compositional Aspects of Exercise Hydration Beverages | Horswill et al. | 2023 | High-sodium formulas (45+ mmol/L) accelerate intestinal water absorption and improve plasma volume retention. | Beverages with higher sodium concentrations were absorbed faster in the intestine, retained more fluid in the bloodstream, and reduced urine losses vs. low-sodium or plain water options. | View Study |
| Efficacy of Oral Rehydration Solution After Exercise-Induced Dehydration | Lee et al. | 2020 | High-sodium ORS (60 mmol/L) outperformed sports drinks and plain water for endurance and fluid balance. | Healthy males (~24 yrs) given a high-sodium ORS had significantly better fluid balance, less fatigue, and better endurance than those given a sports drink or plain water. | View Study |
| Post-Exercise Rehydration: Effects of Sodium and Carbohydrate in ORS vs. Sports Drink vs. Water | Horswill, Hamstra-Wright & Ly | 2023 | Sodium ORS suppressed urine output faster and achieved superior rehydration at 3.5 hours post-exercise. | At the 3.5-hour mark, the sodium ORS group retained significantly more fluid — producing less urine and showing better plasma volume recovery than either the sports drink or water group. | View Study |
| Post-Exercise Rehydration: Comparing 3 Commercial ORS Products | Peden et al. | 2023 | Healthy active participants (N=20) showed varying electrolyte balance outcomes across three sodium-formulated products. | All three sodium-based ORS products outperformed baseline, with differences in sodium content driving variation in how quickly fluid balance was restored. | View Study |
| Citicoline — Attention & Focus | |||||
| Improved Attentional Performance Following Citicoline in Healthy Adult Women | McGlade et al. | 2012 | 250–500 mg citicoline for 28 days significantly improved attentional performance in healthy adults. | Both doses significantly outperformed placebo on a standardized attention test (CPT-II), with the 250 mg dose showing the strongest effect in healthy adult women — not patients. | View Study |
| Citicoline Improves Human Vigilance and Visual Working Memory | Al-Gareeb & Al-kuraishy | 2020 | 500 mg/day citicoline for 2 weeks improved psychomotor performance and reduced brain oxidative stress vs. placebo. | Attention speed, visual working memory, and a brain oxidative stress marker (MDA) all improved significantly vs. placebo, with MDA dropping by ~18%. | View Study |
| Improvements in Concentration, Working Memory & Sustained Attention: Citicoline-Caffeine Beverage | Preston, Werner, Baker & Bruce | 2014 | RCT (N=60): citicoline + caffeine produced faster reaction times, fewer errors, and better processing speed vs. placebo. EEG-confirmed. | 60 healthy adults showed faster maze learning, quicker reaction times, fewer errors, and superior processing speed — all confirmed by EEG brain activity data, not just self-reporting. | View Study |
| Citicoline — Memory | |||||
| Citicoline and Memory Function in Healthy Older Adults — RCT | Nakazaki et al. | 2021 | 12-week double-blind RCT (N=100): citicoline significantly improved overall and episodic memory with zero adverse events. | Citicoline produced dramatically better memory improvements than placebo (score gain 3.78 vs. 0.72, p=0.0052) across 100 healthy middle-aged adults, with a 99% completion rate and no side effects. | View Study |
| Citicoline for Supporting Memory in Aging Humans | Świątkiewicz & Grieb | 2022 | Citicoline boosts brain choline uptake and synaptic membrane repair in middle-aged adults. | Explains how citicoline rebuilds phosphatidylcholine — the main structural fat in brain cell membranes — which naturally degrades with age, improving acetylcholine signaling linked to memory. | View Study |
| Role of Citicoline in Patients with Mild Cognitive Impairment | Zea-Sevilla et al. | 2023 | Citicoline consistently improved memory scores and slowed neurological deterioration. | Citicoline reliably improved memory and provided neuroprotective benefits, with the strongest effects in those with vascular-origin cognitive issues — common in adults 35+. | View Study |
| Citicoline — Physical Performance | |||||
| Choline-Based Multi-Ingredient Supplementation Improves Explosive Strength During Fatigue | Noh, Phillips, Gage & Yoon | 2021 | 14 male athletes: choline-based supplement improved peak power output and explosive strength vs. placebo. | College football players in the active group maintained significantly higher peak power and explosive strength vs. placebo during a fatigue protocol 60 minutes after supplementing. | View Study |
| Citicoline — Safety & Bioavailability | |||||
| Citicoline: A Superior Form of Choline? | Synoradzki & Grieb | 2019 | Citicoline produces less cardiovascular-risk TMAO than phosphatidylcholine, with equal or superior cognitive benefits. | Citicoline produces far less TMAO — a gut-derived metabolite linked to cardiovascular risk — making it both safer and more brain-targeted than cheaper choline alternatives. | View Study |
| Neuroprotective Properties of Citicoline: Facts, Doubts and Unresolved Issues | Grieb | 2014 | Citicoline hydrolyzes into cytidine and choline post-ingestion, both of which cross the blood-brain barrier and resynthesize inside neurons. | Orally consumed citicoline is rapidly broken down in the gut, absorbed into the bloodstream, and reassembled inside brain cells — confirming oral delivery has strong bioavailability. | View Study |
| Citicoline Sodium: Pharmacokinetics and Bioequivalence (HPLC Study) | Wang et al. | 2011 | Oral citicoline sodium tablet achieved 92.7% relative bioavailability vs. capsule form in human plasma. | HPLC blood plasma analysis confirmed tablet form is absorbed nearly identically to capsule form (92.7% bioequivalence), validating powder and tablet delivery formats. | View Study |
| Citicoline and Memory in Healthy Older Adults — Safety Data (RCT) | Nakazaki et al. | 2021 | 99 of 100 participants completed 12 weeks with zero adverse events. All blood markers remained normal. | No adverse events and no abnormal changes in body weight, blood pressure, or metabolic panels — one of the cleanest long-term safety records for any nootropic supplement. | View Study |
| Citicoline — Regulatory & Scientific Consensus | |||||
| EFSA Health Claim Opinion: Citicoline and Memory | European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) | 2024 | EU regulatory panel confirmed scientific substantiation for citicoline memory claims under EU food supplement law. | The EU officially approved citicoline as scientifically substantiated for memory support claims in adults — the strongest possible regulatory endorsement for supplement marketing. | View Study |
| Is Citicoline Effective in Preventing Cognitive Decline? — Systematic Review & Meta-Analysis | Pedone et al. | 2023 | Meta-analysis of 6 trials: all studies showed positive cognitive effects with a statistically significant pooled result. | Every one of the 6 reviewed trials showed positive cognitive outcomes, and the pooled analysis confirmed a significant overall effect — the highest level of scientific evidence above any single study. | View Study |
| Application of Citicoline in Neurological Disorders: A Systematic Review | Rocka, Piędel, Rejdak et al. | 2020 | Systematic review of 47 studies confirms citicoline enhances cognitive function in healthy individuals with a strong safety record. | 47 studies confirmed citicoline reliably improves cognitive function in healthy people — not just those with neurological disease — validating its use as a general cognitive supplement. | View Study |
| Citicoline (Cognizin) in the Treatment of Cognitive Impairment — Meta-Analysis | Fioravanti & Buckley | 2006 | Meta-analysis confirms citicoline efficacy with dopamine and norepinephrine support as key mechanisms. | Citicoline works through multiple brain pathways simultaneously — restoring phospholipids in neuron membranes AND boosting dopamine and norepinephrine signaling — making it uniquely multifunctional. | View Study |
| ── MAGNESIUM & HYDRATION ABSORPTION ── | |||||
| Can Magnesium Enhance Exercise Performance? | Zhang et al. | 2017 | Magnesium is critical for energy metabolism and neuromuscular function; deficiency impairs exercise performance and recovery. | When you're low on magnesium, your muscles and energy systems don't work as well — supplementing helps your body perform and recover, especially during physical stress. | View Study |
| Magnesium Enhances Exercise Performance via Increasing Glucose Availability in the Blood, Muscle, and Brain | Cheng et al. | 2014 | Magnesium supplementation increased blood glucose availability in the blood, muscle, and brain during exercise, improving endurance performance. | Magnesium helps shuttle fuel to where your body needs it most during a workout — your muscles and brain — a key reason it belongs in a hydration formula. | View Study |
| Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Muscle Soreness: A Systematic Review | Cerulli et al. | 2024 | Systematic review found magnesium supplementation consistently reduced muscle soreness across multiple types of physical activity. | Across different workout types, people who supplemented with magnesium experienced less muscle soreness — strong evidence for including it in a recovery-focused electrolyte product. | View Study |
| Liver and Intestinal Glucose and Fluid Absorption Following Magnesium Glycinate Administration | Umoh et al. | 2026 | Short-term vs. long-term magnesium glycinate administration produced measurable differences in liver and intestinal fluid and glucose absorption. | This study shows magnesium directly influences how your gut absorbs fluids — backing up the claim that magnesium form and timing matter in hydration products. | View Study |
| Minerals Content and Osmolarity of Fluids and Water-Electrolyte Balance in Female Field Hockey Players | Kamińska et al. | 2021 | Mineral content (including magnesium) and osmolarity of fluids during exercise directly influenced water-electrolyte and acid-base balance. | What minerals are in your hydration drink — and how concentrated they are — determines how well your body actually stays in balance during physical activity. | View Study |
| ── POTASSIUM & HYDRATION ABSORPTION ── | |||||
| Factors Influencing the Restoration of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance After Exercise in the Heat | Leiper, Maughan & Shirreffs | 1997 | Potassium plays a significant role in fluid retention post-exercise; electrolyte drinks (with potassium) resulted in better rehydration than plain water. | Potassium helps your body actually hold onto the fluid you drink after exercise — without it, you lose much of what you consume through urine. | View Study |
| Rehydration After Exercise: Comparing Flavored Water, Coconut Water, and Sports Beverages | Bell & Spriet | 2025 | Potassium-rich coconut water was equally effective as a carbohydrate-electrolyte sports beverage for post-exercise rehydration. | This recent study confirms potassium-forward formulas can match traditional sports drinks for restoring hydration — validating electrolyte blends that feature potassium prominently. | View Study |
| Post-Exercise Rehydration: Comparing Three Commercial Oral Rehydration Solutions | Peden et al. | 2023 | Electrolyte solutions containing potassium outperformed plain water for rehydration efficiency and fluid retention after exercise. | When comparing real commercial rehydration products, the ones with proper electrolyte profiles (including potassium) consistently won out — good validation for why formulation matters. | View Study |
| The Beverage Hydration Index: Influence of Electrolytes, Carbohydrate and Protein | Suh et al. | 2021 | Electrolyte composition including potassium significantly affects the Beverage Hydration Index — a measure of how much fluid is retained per volume consumed. | Not all drinks hydrate equally — the specific electrolyte mix determines how much actually stays in your system, and potassium is a key driver of that score. | View Study |
| ── CALCIUM & HYDRATION ABSORPTION ── | |||||
| Modeling Calcium and Magnesium Balance: Effects of Diuretics | Dutta & Layton | 2025 | Calcium and magnesium work together in kidney tubular reabsorption to maintain fluid and electrolyte balance; disrupting one affects the other. | Calcium and magnesium aren't independent — they work as a pair in your kidneys to keep fluid balanced, which is why having both in a formula makes physiological sense. | View Study |
| Functional Aloe Vera Drink Supplementation: Effect on Athlete Health | D'Angelo et al. | 2026 | Magnesium, calcium, and potassium together supported hydration status and electrolyte balance in athletes consuming a functional beverage. | This study looked at a functional drink format and found that the trio of magnesium, calcium, and potassium working together produced real hydration benefits in active people. | View Study |
| Minerals Content and Osmolarity of Fluids and Water-Electrolyte Balance (Calcium focus) | Kamińska et al. | 2021 | Calcium-containing mineral fluids improved water-electrolyte and acid-base balance outcomes during sustained exercise. | Drinks with calcium (alongside other minerals) kept athletes better balanced during exercise — direct support for a multi-mineral electrolyte approach like Ormi's. | View Study |